https://apologeticspress.org/APContent.aspx?category=9&article=1367
Cells—“Design Modules” by the Trillions
The seemingly invisible cell is a magnificent, microscopic world all
its own. It quietly goes about its business, carrying out each of its
various functions in utter silence. Yet it lives its life in service to
the creation and maintenance of a larger, superior organism.
Cells, it probably will not surprise you to learn, come in a variety of
sizes and shapes, and have different functions and life expectancies.
For example, some cells (like male spermatozoa) are so small that 20,000
would fit inside a capital “O” from a standard typewriter, each being
only 0.05 mm long. Some cells, placed end to end, would make only one
inch if 6,000 were assembled together in a straight line. Yet all the
cells of the human body, if set end to end, would encircle the Earth
over 200 times. Even the largest cell of the human body, the female
ovum, is unbelievably small, being only 0.01 of an inch in diameter.
Some cells (like platelets in the blood) live a mere four days, while
others (like brain cells) can live 100+ years. Certain cells (like the
reproductive cells) have a single purpose, while others (like blood
cells) serve multiple functions.
Yet in spite of the cell’s incredible complexity, and in spite of the
impressive feats it is able to carry out, evolutionists stand firm in
their belief that the cell owes its ultimate origin to chance forces
operating over vast stretches of geologic time reaching billions of
years into the past to a “primordial soup” that “somehow” was
responsible for giving rise to the cell’s “simple” prokaryotic ancestor.
German anatomist Ernst Haeckel, Charles Darwin’s chief supporter on the
European continent in the mid-nineteenth century, once summarized his
personal feelings about the “simple” nature of the cell when he wrote
that it contained merely “homogeneous globules of plasm” that were
composed chiefly of carbon with an admixture of hydrogen, nitrogen,
and sulfur. These component parts properly united produce the soul and
body of the animated world, and suitably nursed became man. With this
single argument the mystery of the universe is explained, the Deity
annulled, and a new era of infinite knowledge ushered in (1905, p. 111).
Haeckel’s theory turned out to be little more than wishful thinking on
his part, because as scientists began to unravel the secrets stored
within the cell, and the fascinating biochemical code that it contained,
they learned that within its infinitesimal boundaries, there lies a
microcosm of activity that not only boggles the mind, but also exhibits
spectacular complexity and intricate design. As Lane Lester and James
Hefley put it in their book,
Human Cloning: “We once thought that
the cell, the basic unit of life, was a simple bag of protoplasm. Then
we learned that each cell in any life form is a teeming micro-universe
of compartments, structures, and chemical agents…” (1998, pp. 30-31).
The “micro-universe” that we refer to as a cell can be described in a variety of ways. In
Genes, Categories, and Species
(2001, p. 36), Jody Hey described cells in a broad sense as
“well-bounded entities”—i.e., masses of life contained within biological
bubbles (i.e., plasma membranes) that selectively protect their
contents from the harsh nonliving elements surrounding them. Franklin M.
Harold, in
The Way of the Cell, described cells in this manner:
“We may think of a cell as an intricate and sophisticated chemical
factory. Matter, energy, and information enter the cell from the
environment, while waste products and heat are discharged…” (2001, p.
35). Thus, according to these two descriptions, the individual cell
would appear to have many of the same features as an
entire organism.
In fact, the cell
does possess many of the features of a whole
organism. As it turns out, the cell is a veritable bastion of
unimaginable complexity and design, in which the individual components
collaborate to give the cell function and purpose of such intricacy that
evolutionary theory is at a complete loss to explain it. As proof of
that, I would like to offer the following.
THE ORGANELLES OF THE CELL
Most organisms are composed of multiples of cells. A human body, for
example, is composed of over 250 different kinds of cells (red blood
cells, white blood cells, muscle cells, fat cells, nerve cells,
etc.—Baldi, 2001, p. 147), totaling approximately 100 trillion cells in
an average adult (Fukuyama, 2002, p. 58). Yet each of those cells, in a
similar fashion, is composed of a variety of microscopic units known as
“organelles.” The cell is indeed the sum of its parts. And those
individual parts, on their own, exhibit creative complexity and
demonstrable design. Consider, as just a sampling of the organelles
found within a normal cell, the following.
-
Nucleus
-
Nuclear envelope
-
Nucleolus
-
RNA and protiens
-
Nucleoli
-
Chromatin
-
DNA packaged in chromosomes
-
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
-
Ribosomes
-
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
-
Mitochondria
-
Peroxisome
-
Centrioles
-
Golgi
-
Lysosomes
-
Cytoplasm
-
Cell membrane
|
 |
The Nucleus
The nucleus is the central control center of the cell. In order to
guide its development, the cell stores and uses a special chemical
message known as deoxyribonucleic acid (
DNA).
This helically shaped substance stands apart as the “captain” of the
cell. It directs the growth and reproduction of the individual cells,
and contains all of the information needed for creating more new cells.
One of the many marvels of
DNA is the complexity
of the hereditary information contained within it. It is doubtful that
anyone today, mindful of the facts, would speak of the “simple” genetic
code. British scientist A.G. Cairns-Smith has explained why:
Every organism has in it a store of what is called genetic information.... I will refer to an organism’s genetic information store as its Library....
Where is the Library in such a multicellular organism? The answer is
everywhere. With a few exceptions every cell in a multicellular organism
has a complete set of all the books in the Library. As such an organism
grows, its cells multiply and in the process the complete central
Library gets copied again and again.... The human Library has 46 of
these cord-like books in it. They are called chromosomes. They are not
all of the same size, but an average one has the equivalent of about
20,000 pages.... Man’s Library, for example, consists of a set of
construction and service manuals that run to the equivalent of about a
million book-pages together (1985, pp. 9,10, emp. in orig.).
A.E. Wilder-Smith, of the United Nations, concurred with such an assessment when he wrote:
Now, when we are confronted with the genetic code, we are astounded at
once at its simplicity, complexity and the mass of information
contained in it. One cannot avoid being awed at the sheer density of
information contained in such a miniaturized space. When one considers
that the entire chemical information required to construct a man,
elephant, frog, or an orchid was compressed into two minuscule
reproductive cells, one can only be astounded. Only a sub-human could not be astounded.
The almost inconceivably complex information needed to synthesize a
man, plant, or a crocodile from air, sunlight, organic substances,
carbon dioxide and minerals is contained in these two tiny cells. If one
were to request an engineer to accomplish this feat of information
miniaturization, one would be considered fit for the psychiatric line
(1976, pp. 257-259, emp. in orig.).
It is amazing to learn that even what some would call “simple” cells
(e.g., bacteria) have extremely large and complex “libraries” of genetic
information stored within them. For example, the bacterium
Escherichia coli,
which is by no means the “simplest” cell known, is a tiny rod only a
thousandth of a millimeter across and about twice as long, yet “it is an
indication of the sheer complexity of
E. coli that its Library
runs to a thousand page-equivalent” (Cairns-Smith, p. 11). Biochemist
Michael Behe has suggested that the amount of
DNA
in a cell “varies roughly with the complexity of the organism” (1998,
p. 185). There are notable exceptions, however. Humans, for example,
have about 100 times more of the genetic-code-bearing molecule (
DNA) than bacteria, yet salamanders, which are amphibians, have 20 times more
DNA than humans (see Hitching, 1982, p. 75). Humans have roughly 30 times more
DNA than some insects, yet less than half that of certain other insects (see Spetner, 1997, p. 28).
It does not take much convincing, beyond facts such as these, to see
that the genetic code is characterized by orderliness, intricacy, and
adeptness in function. The order and complexity themselves are nothing
short of phenomenal. But the
function of this code is perhaps its most impressive feature, as Wilder-Smith explained when he suggested that the coded information
...may be compared to a book or to a video or audiotape, with an extra
factor coded into it enabling the genetic information, under certain
environmental conditions, to read itself and then to execute the
information it reads. It resembles, that is, a hypothetical architect’s
plan of a house, which plan not only contains the information on how to
build the house, but which can, when thrown into the garden, build
entirely of its own initiative the house all on its own without the need
for contractors or any other outside building agents.... Thus, it is
fair to say that the technology exhibited by the genetic code is
orders of magnitude higher than any technology man has, until now,
developed. What is its secret? The secret lies in its ability to store
and to execute incredible magnitudes of conceptual information in the
ultimate molecular miniaturization of the information storage and
retrieval system of the nucleotides and their sequences (1987, p. 73,
emp. in orig.).
This “ability to store and to execute incredible magnitudes of conceptual information” is where
DNA comes into play. In their book,
The Mystery of Life’s Origin, Thaxton, Bradley, and Olsen discussed the
DNA-based genetic code elucidated by Crick and Watson.
According to their now-famous model, hereditary information is
transmitted from one generation to the next by means of a simple code
resident in the specific sequence of certain constituents of the DNA molecule....
The breakthrough by Crick and Watson was their discovery of the
specific key to life’s diversity. It was the extraordinarily complex yet
orderly architecture of the DNA molecule. They
had discovered that there is in fact a code inscribed in this “coil of
life,” bringing a major advance in our understanding of life’s
remarkable structure (1984, p. 1).
How important is the “coil of life” represented in the
DNA molecule? Wilder-Smith concluded: “The information stored on the
DNA-molecule
is that which controls totally, as far as we at present know, by its
interaction with its environment, the development of all biological
organisms” (1987, p. 73). Professor E.H. Andrews summarized how this can
be true:
The way the DNA code works is this. The DNA molecule
is like a template or pattern for the making of other molecules called
“proteins.” ...These proteins then control the growth and activity of
the cell which, in turn, controls the growth and activity of the whole
organism (1978, p. 28).
Thus, the
DNA contains the
information that allows proteins to be manufactured, and the proteins
control cell growth and function, which ultimately are responsible for
each organism. The genetic code, as found within the
DNA molecule, is vital to life as we know it. In his book,
Let Us Make Man,
Bruce Anderson referred to it as “the chief executive of the cell in
which it resides, giving chemical commands to control everything that
keeps the cell alive and functioning” (1980, p. 50). Kautz followed this
same line of thinking when he stated:
The information in DNA is
sufficient for directing and controlling all the processes which
transpire within a cell including diagnosing, repairing, and replicating
the cell. Think of an architectural blueprint having the capacity of
actually building the structure depicted on the blueprint, of
maintaining that structure in good repair, and even replicating it
(1988, p. 44).
You will notice that such things as diagnosing, repairing, and
reproducing are all functions normally associated with entire organisms.
Yet
DNA, as small as it is, performs these
functions every day on the molecular level. The genetic code is a
veritable masterpiece of design. An investigation into the structure and
function of the
DNA molecule shows that the prospect of
DNA originating via natural processes is simply unreasonable.
Ribosomes
One of the functions of
DNA is the production and maintenance of proteins.
To accomplish this, the
DNA requires the assistance of special organelles known as ribosomes. In order to prepare the
DNA to be received by the ribosomes, specialized enzymes (
RNA polymerases and certain proteins) break apart the
DNA, and form a modified version of the
DNA message, known as messenger
RNA (m
RNA). The m
RNA then can be sent to the ribosomes for protein formation. For our purposes, we will think of ribosomes as fax machines, and the m
RNA will be the paper that is fed through the machine. The ribosomes then will bind with another type of
RNA known as transfer
RNA (t
RNA), based on the sequence of m
RNAs that are being fed through the ribosome
. Attached to these t
RNAs
are amino acids—the basic building blocks of proteins. In order to
amalgamate the amino acids and form a polymer, each individual t
RNA must bind with a specific site on the ribosome, and the amino acid must detach from the t
RNA
and bind with other amino acids on the ribosome to form a long chain.
The ribosomes’ task is a lengthy, complicated process, and yet,
fortunately, they make few mistakes, because such mistakes can result in
a deformed, useless mass. Without the meticulous workings of the
ribosome, structures such as hair and nails would not develop. Also, no
proteins could be manufactured for the cell or the rest of the body. The
mind-boggling complexity exhibited by
DNA, ribosomes, proteins, and their molecular counterparts defy explanation via time, chance, and naturally occurring processes.
Mitochondria
Whence does the cell draw its power to drive the work of the ribosomes,
as well as the myriad of other functions it is required to perform? The
answer lies in the mitochondrion—the energy-producing organelles within
the cell. Mitochondria are elongated structures with a smooth outer
covering. Within the organelle, there are numerous convoluted folds,
called cristae, which increase the internal surface area. This surface
area is extremely important, because it provides a larger base for the
mitochondria to use in the production of adenosine triphosphate (
ATP)—the
primary energy source for the cell (see “Mitochondria,” 2003). How does
evolutionary theory explain this incredible interdependency of the
cell’s organelles? How did they “learn” to cooperate? These questions
can never be answered by simply suggesting small changes over time.
Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane that I mentioned earlier is the security system of
the cell. This membrane is a fragile lipid bilayer, with each component
being a mirror image of the other. The hydrophilic [water-attracting]
portions face inward toward each other, and the hydrophobic
[water-repelling] portions face outward. The cell’s membrane can perform
many essential functions with this structural format. In their book,
Essential Cell Biology, Bruce Alberts and his colleagues observed:
A living cell is a self-reproducing system of molecules held inside a
container. The container is the plasma membrane- a fatty film so thin
and transparent that it cannot be seen directly in the light microscope.
It is simple in construction, being based on a sheet of lipid
molecules… Although it serves as a barrier to present the contents of
the cell from escaping and mixing with the surrounding medium… the
plasma membrane does much more than that. Nutrients have to pass inward
across it if the cell is to survive and grow, and waste products have to
pass outward. Thus, the membrane is penetrated by highly selective
channels and pumps, formed from protein molecules that allow specific
substances to be imported while others are exported. Still other protein
molecules in the membrane act as sensors to enable the cell to respond
to changes in its environment (1998, p. 347).
This cell membrane is extremely thin, and yet it can perform such
functions as helping nerve cells to function (via sodium-potassium
pumps) and aiding in breathing (red blood cells must expel and absorb
certain ions in order for the body tissues to receive oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide). Thomas Heinze commented on this arrangement when he
wrote:
Which came first? A first cell could not form without the specialized
membrane holding it together and maintaining livable conditions inside,
or the membrane that is only produced by a living cell? Remember,
neither the lipids of cell membranes nor the proteins that make up their
pumps and channels will form in nature apart from living cells (2002,
p. 47).
How could such a complicated covering as the plasma membrane come into existence via purely naturalistic forces?
Lysosomes
Amidst all of this production, waste is continually produced. The
cell’s lysosomes are the means by which this waste is processed and
expelled. Specific enzymes are carefully retained within the membrane of
the lysosomes, which can digest practically any waste product.
Interestingly, the lysosomes serve a dual purpose by also ingesting the
food that is taken in by the cell. When a cell needs to digest
nutrients, the lysosome’s membrane will fuse with the membrane of a food
vacuole. The lysosome then can insert enzymes into the food vacuole in
order to break it down. As a result, the digested food diffuses through
the vacuole membrane and enters the cell to be used for energy or growth
(“Lysosomes,” 2001).
If the enzymes contained within the lysosome were to be released, the
cell would digest itself, essentially committing cellular suicide, which
brings us to another important aspect of the cell—automatic cell death.
Science writer Jennifer Ackerman made the following important
observation with reference to cell death:
In the late 1982, the biologist Bob Horvitz made a bold suggestion:
cells die as a natural result of the process of growth because they have
a built-in program to take their own lives. Just as cells carry within
them the seeds of their propagation, they also harbor the means of their
end, a little program to dismantle their lives, to commit suicide
(2001, p. 100).
An example of this seemingly odd feature can be found in the frog. As
it begins to transform from a water-dwelling tadpole to a land-dwelling
frog, its tail begins to disappear. Where did it go? The frog’s tail
cells stopped receiving a message from the body telling them to “stay
alive!” At that point, the lysosomes released their digestive enzymes,
destroying the cells, and eventually causing the tail to disappear.
Where, in the history of evolution, would scientists place a program that actually
kills cells? The mantra of evolution is “
survival of the fittest.” According to this function of the cell, would not that dictum be changed to “
suicide of the fittest?”
But there is another point here that should not be overlooked. The
cell’s organelles frequently cooperate for the cell’s ultimate
protection. As Ackerman later mentioned: “To protect against accidental
cell death, pieces of a cell’s apoptotic machinery are sequestered in
different places—in the membrane of the cell and in its mitochondria”
(2001, p.102). This “sequestering” is essential for the cell’s
well-being. Yet it also works to the cell’s ultimate planned
destruction. If, in the beginning of life as evolutionists know it,
separate organisms came together to form a cell, how could they learn to
cooperate? And if they did, why would they work together to form a
system that allows cellular suicide?
CONCLUSION
The cell, in all of its complexity and purposeful design, can be
attributed only to the workings of a Supreme Designer. Even renowned
evolutionists have conceded the difficulty of accounting for the
ultimate origin of the cell via naturalistic processes. Russian
biochemist Alexander Oparin commented: “Unfortunately, the origin of the
cell remains a question which is actually the darkest point of the
complete evolution theory” (1936, p. 82). Klaus Dose, as president of
the Institute of Biochemistry at the University of Johanes Gutenberg,
stated:
More than thirty years of experimentation on the origin of life in the
fields of chemical and molecular evolution have led to a better
perception of the immensity of the problem of the origin of life on
Earth rather that to its solution. At present all discussions on
principal theories and experiments in the field either end in stalemate
or in a confession of ignorance (1988, p. 82).
These confessions are characteristic of the troubles that evolutionary
theory has encountered in explaining the origin and decisive design of
the cell. God’s omnipotence can be seen throughout His creation—a
creation that continually defies any and all evolutionary explanations.
REFERENCES
Ackerman, Jennifer (2001),
Chance in the House of Fate (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin).
Cairns-Smith, A.G. (1985),
Seven Clues to the Origin of Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Dose, Klaus (1988), “The Origin of Life: More Questions than Answers,”
Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 13[4]:348.
Haeckel, Ernst (1905),
The Wonders of Life, trans. J. McCabe (London: Watts).
Harold, Franklin M. (2001),
The Way of the Cell (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Heinze, Thomas F. (2002),
How Life Began (Ontario, CA: Chick).
Hey, Jody (2001),
Genes, Categories, and Species (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Lester, Lane P. and James C. Hefley (1998),
Human Cloning (Grand Rapids, MI: Revell).
“Lysosomes” (2001), San Diego City Schools, [On-line],
URL: http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/miramesa/Organelles/lyso.html.
Margulis, Lynn and Dorion Sagan (1986),
Microcosmos (Berkely and Los Angeles, CA: University of California).
“Mitochondria” (2003),
Cells Alive, [On-line],
URL: http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/mitochon.htm.
Muncaster, Ralph O. (2003),
Dismantling Evolution (Eugene, OR: Harvest House).
Oparin, Alexander I. (1936),
Origin of Life, (New York: Dover)
Skoyles, John R. and Dorion Sagan (2002),
Up from Dragons (New York: McGraw-Hill).
Thaxton, Charles B., Walter L. Bradley, and Roger L. Olsen (1984),
The Mystery of Life's Origin (New York: Philosophical Library).
Wilder-Smith, A.E. (1976),
A Basis for a New Biology (Einigen: Telos International).
Wilson, Edward O., et. al. (1973),
Life on Earth (Stamford, CT: Sinauer).
