What is the origin of Judaism, according to the Bible?
1. Terminology
Judaism, Jew, Judea, etc.
Unfortunately, many of the terms associated with Judaism are virtually
indistinguishable in common usage. The terms “Judaism,” “Jew,” “Jewish,”
“Judea,” and “Judeans” for example, are all based on the name of the
patriarch Judah, one of the 12 sons of the patriarch Jacob (conveniently
listed in Gen. 35:23-26).
The story of the births of these brothers, along with Dinah, their only
sister, which is an amazing account of wifely competition, is recorded
in Gen. 29:16 – 30:24 and 35:16-18.
Strictly speaking, the terms “Judaism” and “Jew(s)” should not
describe Israelites earlier than 721 B.C.E., the year that the Assyrians
conquered the northern nation of Israel, leaving only the southern
nation of Judah. From that time on, “Judah” was used synonymously with
“Israel” and “Jew” with “Israelite,” even for descendants belonging to
tribes other than Judah. This is because by 721 B.C.E., and for almost
200 years previously, “Judah” referred not only to the tribe that
descended from Judah himself, but also to the political entity composed
mainly of the tribe of Judah, but also including the tribes of Benjamin,
Simeon, and most of Levi, with members of other tribes included as
well. In actual usage, however, “Judaism” and “Jewish nation” applies to
the entire history of Israel, from its founder, the patriarch Abraham,
Jacob’s grandfather (c. 1800 B.C.E.). The related term, “Judaea” was the
name the Romans gave to the southern portion of Palestine after they
took control in 60 B.C.E.
Israel, children of Israel, Israelites, Israelis“ Because God renames Jacob “Israel” (Gen. 32:28),
these boys are called “the sons of Israel,” and their descendants “The
12 tribes of Israel,” “the children of Israel,” or simply “Israelites.”
This should not be used interchangeably with “Israelis,” which properly
refers only to citizens of the modern nation of Israel.
Hebrews“ A rarer term is
“Hebrew,” used only 34 times in the Old Testament. Two theories compete
with each other regarding the origin of this name. Some say it comes
from “Heber,” an ancestor of Jacob’s grandfather, the patriarch Abraham (Gen. 11:14-26).
Abraham is called a “Hebrew” (Gen.14:13), and the name “Hebrews” is
often applied to his many descendants through his son Isaac and his
grandson Jacob (Gen.39:14, 17; 40:15; Exod.3:18; 1 Sam.4:6; 14:11;
Phil.3:5). (The name “Hebrew,” however, does not apply to Abraham’s many
descendants through his son Ishmael. These people the Bible calls
“Ishmaelites,” according to Gen.25:12-18 and are held by tradition to be
the ancestors of the Arabs.) A second theory is that it comes from a
similarly spelled Hebrew verb, abar, which means “to cross
over. Hebrews, then, would be those who have crossed over some
boundary, in other words, foreigners. The logical boundary it might
refer to is the Euphrates River (see Josh. 24:15).
Habiru, Hapiru, SA.GAZ
Archaeologists have long debated whether the biblical term “Hebrew” is
related to the name “Habiru or “Hapiru" or the
cuneiform name SA.GAZ. These three are found in documents
of
Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt of the second millennium
B.C.E. A useful summary of the ongoing debate occurs in LaSor, Hubbard,
and Bush (207):
of
Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt of the second millennium
B.C.E. A useful summary of the ongoing debate occurs in LaSor, Hubbard,
and Bush (207):
The earliest mention of the SA.GAZ or Habiru occurs in a text from the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2050); if the pr and
Habiru are the same”which is not at all firmly
established”references to the Habiru can be found in Assyrian,
Babylonian, Ugaritic, Egyptian, and Hittite texts for the next seven or
eight hundred years.
Identification of the Habiru with the Hebrews is tempting, and a
number of scholars have adopted it. However, it is impossible to
interpret most references to the Habiru as also indicating the Hebrews.
Moreover, the Habiru are described as warriors, mercenaries, marauders,
and caravaneers all over the ancient Near 
East”which
does not fit the biblical picture of the Hebrews. If the Exodus was in
1446, then at the same time the Hebrews were in the wilderness of Sinai,
[the Egyptian pharaoh] Amenhotep II (1438-1412) was reporting the
capture of 89,600 prisoners, among them 3,000 Apiru, from his
campaign in Syria and Palestine. If it [i.e., the Exodus] was in 1290,
then the Hebrews were still slaves in Egypt at the time of Amenhotep.
Neither case permits an easy identification.
East”which
does not fit the biblical picture of the Hebrews. If the Exodus was in
1446, then at the same time the Hebrews were in the wilderness of Sinai,
[the Egyptian pharaoh] Amenhotep II (1438-1412) was reporting the
capture of 89,600 prisoners, among them 3,000 Apiru, from his
campaign in Syria and Palestine. If it [i.e., the Exodus] was in 1290,
then the Hebrews were still slaves in Egypt at the time of Amenhotep.
Neither case permits an easy identification.
The problem of the Habiru cannot be solved here. The important point
is that identification of the Habiru with the Hebrews is not easy.
It appears that “Habiru” is either a broad term for semi-nomadic
peoples, of which the Hebrews were one component, or not an ethnic term
at all but a sociological one”a class of wanderers who do not consider
themselves subject to local laws and who hire themselves out for
caravans, mercenary armies, or as servants of one kind or another. The
breadth of the occupations described by the word as well as the
extensive geography involved, has led many scholars to conclude that “Habiru came to be used rather loosely as a derogatory term
for anyone in a menial capacity, or anyone who was a foreigner.
Semitic“ Another broad
term is “Semitic,” though non-Biblical, comes from Shem, one of the
three sons of Noah, many generations prior to Abraham. All of Shem’s
descendants can be called “Semitic,” which would include both Arabs and
Jews, though modern usage often limits the term to the Jews only.
Want to go deeper?
Here are some sources you can pursue in your study of the terminology of Judaism:Less advanced:
W. S. LaSor, D. A. Hubbard, and F. W. Bush. Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament (2nd ed., 1996). Provides a great overview, not only to the origin of Judaism in particular, but to the Hebrew Scriptures as a whole.
Yamauchi, Edwin. “Habiru,” 223-224 in New International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology (1983).
More advanced:
Von Rad, Gerhard, and others. Article on Israel, Israelite, Jew, Judea, Jewish, Judaize, Judaism, Hebrew, Hebraic, etc., 3:356-391 in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Ed. Gerhard Kittel and G. W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament, with a comprehensive review of Old Testament studies and a special supplement on the Apocrypha. 318-325. (1969)
Mayer, Reinhold, and others. “Israel, Jew, Hebrew, Jacob, Judah,” 2:304-323 in New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (4 vols., 1986)
R. L. Harris. “abar word group” “eber,” and “ibri,” 2:641-643 in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (1980)
Bright, John. A History of Israel. (4th ed., 2000) 93-96, 134-143.
Online resources:
Links for studies on Habiru/Hapiru/‘Apiru
2. Formative events
The origin of Judaism is largely dependent on a few significant
historical events, which would certainly include the call of Abraham,
the Exodus, the United Kingdom, and the Babylonian exile. We will
briefly look at each in turn.
The call of Abraham
“ The LORDÂ called Abram to leave his country and family for a place the LORD would show him (Gen. 12:1-4; Acts 7:1-4). After the death of his father Terah, Abram set out from Haran in what is now southeastern Turkey and traveled to Canaan (now in Israel).
Over the next 25 years, after starting out on that journey, Abram
learned and responded to the faithfulness of God. Sarai was still
childless and well beyond the child-bearing years, yet the LORD promised not only that Abram would have an heir, but that his descendants would be as numerous as the stars (Gen. 15:4-5).
Despite the physical obstacles, Scripture states that Abram “believed the LORD, and He credited it to him as righteousness (Gen. 15:6). This trust Abram had in the LORD, this unwavering loyalty, became the model for all believers in the LORD who were to follow. Abram became known as the “friend of God (2 Chron. 20:7; James 2:23) and the “father of the faithful (Gal. 3:6-9).
The LORD entered into
covenant with him, marking the changed relationship by the sign of
circumcision as well as by changing Abrams name to Abraham and
his wifes name to Sarah (Gen. 17).
God blessed him with wealth and finally with Isaac, the “son of
promise. Abraham also received Gods promise of land,
though during his lifetime, the only real estate he owned was the burial
site he purchased at Hebron, the cave of Machpelah.
Isaac, Abrahams heir, continued the semi-nomadic lifestyle of
his father and renewed his fathers covenant with the LORD. His
son, Jacob, or Israel, established the family of 12 sons whose
descendants became known as “the twelve tribes of Israel.
The clan becomes a nation“ Because of a drought in Canaan,
Jacobs entire family moved to the delta region of Egypt, where
they stayed for the next 400 years (Gen. 38-50). During this time, the extended family of 70 became a great nation of some 3 million. This is summarized in Deut. 26:5“
Then you shall declare before the LORD your
God: “My father was a wandering Aramean, and he went down into Egypt
with a few people and lived there and became a great nation, powerful
and numerous. But the Egyptians mistreated us and made us suffer,
putting us to hard labor. Then we cried out to the LORD, the God of our fathers, and the LORD heard our voice and saw our misery, toil and oppression. So the LORD brought
us out of Egypt with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, with great
terror and with miraculous signs and wonders. He brought us to this
place and gave us this land, a land flowing with milk and honey; and now
I bring the first-fruits of the soil that you, O LORD, have given me.”
Under the leadership of Moses and Aaron, and by the miraculous intervention of the LORD in
the 10 plagues and the crossing of the Red Sea, the Israelites broke
free of the slavery they had endured during the final generation of the
400-year period in Egypt (see Exod. 1-15).
The Israelites assembled around Mt. Sinai, where they witnessed the awesome glory of the LORD and entered into covenant with Him who is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (see Exod. 19 – 24).
The covenant document, inscribed on two stone tablets, is now known as “The Ten Commandments (Exod. 31:18; 34:1-32). Much of the rest of the Law of Moses is an explanation of these ten principles as they apply in the daily life of the nation.
David and the United Kingdom For another extended
period, after the Israelites entered into and mostly conquered Canaan
under Joshua (recorded in Joshua), the 12 tribes remained a loose
confederation united mainly by their shared covenant with the LORD.
The leadership exercised by what English Bibles have traditionally
called Judges was sometimes both spiritual and military,
sometimes only one or the other, and seldom involved the entire nation
(see the Book of Judges).
Toward the end of the ministry of the prophet Samuel, the last of
these “judges,” the nation demanded a king to lead them, ignoring the
aged prophets warnings of the dire consequences of rebelling
against the kingship of God Himself (1 Sam. 8).
Under Gods direction, Samuel anointed Saul as the
nations first king. After a good beginning, Saul’s position and
power corrupted him to the point that he flagrantly disobeyed the LORD‘s direct orders and received from Samuel the LORD‘s rebuke and rejection (see 1 Sam. 9:1 – 13:14).
Saul’s successor, David, did the most to unite the nation, winning
victories over all of its enemies in the bordering nations, and
extending the territory of the country to include all of the lands God
promised to Abraham (1 Chron. 22:18-19). David also led the nation to a
renewal of its worship of the LORD. He set a wonderful example of personal devotion to God (see 2 Sam. 6:1-15; 7:1-29; 22:1 – 23:7; 1 Chron. 29:10-22), despite his dreadful sins (2 Sam. 11 – 20; 24:1-25;
1 Chron. 21:1-28), wrote much of the nation’s hymn-book (the Psalms),
and prepared the way for a national sanctuary, the temple his son
Solomon built that stood for nearly 400 years (1 Sam. 22 – 26; 28 – 29; 1 Chron. 23 – 29).
Ever after, the people looked back to the reign’s of David and
Solomon as Israel’s golden age. They looked forward to the time when the
Son of David would arise and restore the nation to its former glory
(see Ps. 118:50; Isa. 9:2-7; Ezek. 34:23-24).
Exile in Babylonia“ After the death of Solomon, the nation
divided, with Judah ruled by Solomon’s son Rehoboam and Israel (most of
the other tribes) ruled by Jeroboam. Jeroboam led Israel into a
perverted worship of the LORD that
involved an unauthorized priesthood, different feast days, and official
shrines at the northern and southern extremities of the nation,
featuring idols resembling calves. Despite the rebukes of prophets like
Elijah, Elisha, Hosea, Joel, Amos, and Jonah, Israel continued in its
rebellion against the LORD until
the Assyrians destroyed its capital in 721 BCE and carried off many of
its citizens into an exile from which they never officially returned.
David’s dynasty, meanwhile, continued to rule Judah, though often
ruthlessly and wickedly. Although God was very patient with David’s
line, He did permit the Assyrians under Sennacherib to punish them
severely (701 BCE), conquering all of the cities of Judah except
Jerusalem (see 2 Kings; 2 Chron.; Isa. 36-39).
The deliverance Jerusalem experienced at that time created a spiritual
revival under the leadership of the prophets Micah and Isaiah and their
patron, King Hezekiah.
Hezekiah’s son Manasseh, however, was very wicked and led the nation away from the LORD.
Of the kings that followed, only Josiah was devoted to God. The nation
slid into apostasy to the point that God, through the prophet Jeremiah,
announced that its destruction was unavoidable. The Babylonians,
successors to the Assyrians in imperial power, became the overlord of
Judah. They removed the upper class of the nation to Babylon in 605 BCE
and again in 597. Ezekiel, Daniel, and Daniel’s three friends Hananiah,
Mishael, and Azariah (better known by their Babylonian names: Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego) became exiles at this time.
Because Judah renewed her rebellion against the Babylonian King
Nebuchadnezzar, the powerful ruler laid siege to Jerusalem and conquered
her in 586 BCE, taking another group of Israelites back to Babylon.
The fall of Jerusalem to Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BCE marked the end of
the First Temple, the one Solomon had built in about 920. For the first
time in more than 300 years, the Israelites could not offer sacrifices
or worship at the temple in Jerusalem. It was during this period of the
Babylonian Exile that their local assemblies, or “synagogues” (from a
Greek word that means “come together”) became important.
Even after the return from exile and rebuilding of the temple became
possible after the Babylonians fell to the Medo-Persian empire (539-516
BCE), the synagogues remained a vital component of Judaism. Not only did
the synagogue become a place for the Jews to worship and read the
Scriptures, but it was also their school, their civil court, their
social assistance center, and their community center.
By the First Century CE, the synagogue was a long-established
institution, as demonstrated in Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Acts.
Jesus and Paul both used synagogue as a center for religious instruction
(see Luke 4:15-30 and Acts 13:14-48).
They understood Christ’s church to be the synagogue perfected, reaching
its ultimate fulfillment in magnifying God, submitting to Jesus as
Messiah and Lord, and in its acceptance of Gentile believers, finally
realizing the promise God made to Abraham, “In your offspring, all the
nations of the world will be blessed.”
Of course, those who rejected Jesus as the Messiah rejected His
followers also, and eventually excluded them from their synagogues. This
process accelerated after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the
Second Temple in 70 CE, this time by Roman legions under Titus. The
Jewish Christians, who refused to participate in the Jewish rebellion
against Rome, were regarded as not only apostate because of their
allegiance to Jesus, but also disloyal to the nation.
As a result, Christianity and Judaism divided, and only in very
recent times has anyone made much of an effort to bring them back
together again in the Messianic Jews movement.
Want to go deeper?
Recommended for purchase:
Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament by
W. S. LaSor, D. A. Hubbard, F. W. Bush (1996). Provides a great
overview, not only to the origin of Judaism in particular, but to the
Hebrew Scriptures as a whole.
A History of Israel by
John Bright (4th ed., 2000). Offers excellent historical background,
including how the rise of the Hebrews fit in with the political dynamics
of the ancient Middle East.
The Emergence of Judaism by Jacob Neusner (2004). An Introduction to Judaism by one of the foremost Jewish scholars.
Online resources:
Read the rest of the articles on Judaism in “The Shallows.” Then in “Study Links,” take a look at the section on Rabbinic Literature for links to some of the best Judaica on the web for non-Hebrew speakers.